Visual Prostheses and the Retinal Implant Project :: Biology Essays Research Papers

Visual Prostheses and the Retinal Implant Project Visual percepts are the final product of a rich interplay of stimulus processing that occurs without the intervention of one's consciousness. While this is a fascinating issue to consider, especially as it pertains to the philosophical and practical definitions of ideas like the "self," the converse is equally interesting to me. In this modern era of exploding technological ingenuity, the sum of which is a product of the conscious brain, increasingly more opportunities exist for the brain to design the input it receives. One method by which this occurs is observable in the treatment of visual pathologies. A development of particular interest to me is the use of visual prosthetic devices in the treatment of some forms of progressive blindness. Research in this area raises numerous conflicts within the realm of bioengineering, but promises, at least, to challenge the boundaries of current microtechnology and instigate further integration of the rapidly expanding fields of electronics a nd medicine. In 1988, a multidisciplinary research team called the "Retinal Implant Project," spanning the knowledge bases of Harvard Medical School, the Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology's Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, was formed with the explicit goal of creating an intraocular retinal prosthetic device to combat the effects of certain types of progressive blindness (4). The prostheses are intended to stimulate retinal ganglion cells whose associated photoreceptor cells have fallen victim to degradation by macular degeneration or retinitis pigmentosa, two currently incurable but widespread conditions (2). Their most recent work has been to orchestrate short-term clinical trials in which blind volunteers receive a temporary intraocular prosthetic implant and undergo a series of tests to determine the quality of visual percepts experienced over a two- to three-hour period (2). The leaders of the Retinal Implant Project, while enthusiastic about their progress, do not anticipate the realization of a workable prosthetic within the next five years (2). The goal of retinal prosthetic proposed by the collaborators is to bypass degenerate photoreceptors by providing electrical stimulation directly to the underlying ganglion cells (2,3,4,5). The ganglion cell axons compose the optic nerve, which travels from the eye and terminates in various regions of the brain, where the combined input is processed along multiple routes and ultimately results in the experience of sight (4). Ganglion cell excitation will be accomplished by attaching a two-silicon-microchip system onto the surface of the retina, which will be powered by a specially designed laser mounted on a pair of glasses worn by the patient (4,5).

My Ethical Beliefs in the Light of Popular Ethical Theories

It is certainly of convenience to meditate on one’s ethical beliefs in the light of popular ethical theories such as the awesome Divine Command Theory, which grounds my ethical principles in godly thought; the simplistic Ethical Egoism Theory, which allows my (Freudian) Id-based, self-interests to dictate my behavior in all situations; and the Utilitarian Theory, which compels me to rethink in terms of the long-term good of all people in connection with my personal and/or pontential business practices.   I believe that my ethical concerns rest on a variety of ethical theories.   This belief is founded on the assumption that man’s mind and intentions are perhaps too complex to be understood by means of one ethical theory alone.This is the reason why philosophers have established an entire discipline to study the mind and intentions of man.   The ethical-philosophical area that fascinates me most, however, is one of ‘reason.’   I trust my ethical conc erns to rest on reason.   Apart from the above mentioned theories, therefore, I have observed myself trusting in the Categorical Imperative Theory of Kant at times, the Rights Theory at other times, and the Virtue Theory to boot – but, all in different situations concerned with ethical thought.   Is it possible for man to ever do away with ethics?   And, do I consciously choose which theory of ethics to apply in situations that call for my ethical principles to suddenly become a focus of attention?I believe that ethics are a component of virtually all situations of man, not just ethical issues that are manifest to all.   From sustainable food consumption to the culture of clothing – ethical theories apply in almost all human situations.   Only when the individual is deep asleep in bed, or in deep meditation perhaps, do ethical concerns comfortably vanish into thin air.   Which ethical theories do I trust at the time I wake up each day?   Although I have v aried reasons to believe in the ethical theories mentioned above, the only theory that never  leaves my mind is that of applying reason to all situations that require my ethical concerns to come in the light of my mind.Reason appears before I decide whether God would approve of a certain action of mine, or whether smoking another cigarette with my friends would truly serve my interests, etc.   No doubt, all ethical theories call for reason to be applied before the theories themselves can be applied by an individual.   The theory that I could apply most easily to all my situations, but only after applying reason, is the Divine Command Theory.   I believe that this particular theory incorporates the remaining ethical theories mentioned in this paper as well.God’s commands are often synonymous to all that should be ‘good’ in our world.   Based on an interpretation of the Bible, my own interests should be God’s interests, and the interests of my brot hers and sisters (all people) should also be my short term and long term interests.   Moreover, God’s commands automatically include the concept of ‘Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.’   I must be wishing my business associates and other, well.   I must be ‘loving my neighbor as I love myself.’The Rights Theory and the Virtue Theory must needs be incorporated as well into the Divine Command Theory, seeing that God calls for His vicegerents to protect His sheep (that is, the government should protect the rights of the people, as in the Rights Theory); and He also calls for the teaching of virtues to all people, young and old, and these virtues consist of justice, honesty, goodness, etc.   The virtues taught by the Divine Command Theory also incorporate kindness, compassion, love, and mercy – concepts that are essential to ‘being human,’ but are not touched upon by most ethical theories outside the realm of G od.The question that automatically emerges is: What are God’s commands?   Do they depend upon our whims, or are they based upon a single holy book?   The answers to these questions are  complicated in my case, given that I believe in various interpretations of divine commands that may or may not be mainstream Christian, Muslim, Buddhist or Hindu.   I have learned more from books than from family and my community, which happen to be the main sources of socialization for most people.   This sociological theory has important underpinnings in ethical beliefs, seeing that we learn ethics and principles from the sources of information that exist around us.   I also believe that we learn from a personal source of information, the God of Aristotle and Sir Thomas Aquinas, and therefore, it is important to know books of revelation to learn God’s commands and apply reason to apply the commands of God from myriad scriptures.Now, of course, there are a huge number of sc riptures that may be called forth to understand the commands of God.   Are the illustrious Ten Commandments the only commands, or should I also believe in the New Testament and the Qur’an?   Did Buddha leave any godly commands in the form of scriptures?   Such are the questions I have had to answer in my evolving understanding of God’s commands, even though there is a deep source of information that still exists and tells me what is right and wrong from the Highest Source.   Call it conscience – I believe that morality is ‘knowing right from wrong,’ in the view of everybody including myself and God.   What pleases God and also pleases society must certainly please me.What else are my beliefs in light of the Divine Command Theory, which, in my opinion, should incorporate the remainder of the ethical theories mentioned in this paper, and many more theories like so.   I believe that God is a synonym for the ‘Good’ that Plato ha d referred to.   At the same time, it is quite possible that my interpretation of the Divine Command Theory would be different from the interpretation of another soul.   After all, my understanding of God and His commands is different from the understanding of another soul.   I believe in many scriptures at  the same time; additionally, I feel confident that they come from the same Source.   I have learned about God in a separate way altogether.   I do not necessarily trust all people’s doctrines.   Moreover, I do not compel anybody else to believe in what I believe in.Does this mean that I could easily run into ethical conflicts with people? – Yes.   However, it does not bother me, provided that I understand that their ethical principles are different from mine, and based on separate ethical theories altogether.   Once again, reason comes to the rescue.   Without reason, I, too, would perhaps become as intolerant as the racists and the terrorists ( extreme racists) who cannot tolerate the differences in beliefs among people.   I know that God calls for such tolerance among the children of Adam.Therefore, when extremism (or, extreme racism) leads to bloodshed among people, and those that are responsible for the chaos throw the responsibility back on God by saying that such acts were committed ‘in the name of God’ – it is extremely sad and funny at the same time.   It is sad because the intolerant folks have not understood God’s message of love and tolerance, even if they think that they are killing in the name of God, who is Love.On the other hand, it is funny because they are doing the direct opposite of what they intend to do.   That is why it is of central importance to understand one’s ethical principles, and keep on understanding and improving upon them throughout one’s lifetime.   Furthermore, it is essential to align one’s behavior with one’s ethical principl es.   By saying one thing and doing something else, people can prove to be quite inconsistent and unreliable, if not dangerous to the extent of terrorism and other forms of psychopathy.I believe that ethics call for tolerance and good citizenship, and wherever God’s name is mentioned, as in the U.S. Constitution, there should be peace.   For the state, therefore, the Divine Command Theory mandates peace.   For business in general, and for the economy at large, the  Divine Command Theory entails distribution of wealth with a focus on income generation, economic growth, and prosperous living.   In personal life, I have found this theory to be most appropriate because it does not limit me to one theory.Nevertheless, I have one God, like the Christians and the Jews.   In addition, it is advantageous to me that I do not always have to think about myself and my own interests when the responsibility or the task at hand demands me to sacrifice my interests, at times, for the benefit of society in general.   Ultimately, I may realize that by serving society at the expense of sacrificing my own interests at times, I serve myself better.   I may become a happier person by serving society, and I may also increase in wealth.   God would be pleased with me.   What is most important, still, is the fact that I would be a peaceful person by being aligned with the interests of God, society, and myself.Naturally, in order to align my activities and behavior with the interests of God, society, and myself; I have to think before I leap.   It is of the essence for me to meditate on information that I gather from a huge variety of sources, including books, my professors, friends, parents, etc.   After absorbing the information thus gathered, I enjoy applying the Divine Command Theory to get to the depths of situations that often get me to think in terms of the other ethical theories as well.There are times when self-interests rule my ethical principles , or I think only in terms of the virtues of justice, integrity, trustworthiness, etc.   However, if I were to base my activities solely on the Id-based Ethical Egoism Theory, for example, I would perhaps indulge in misleading thinking, which would eventually be responsible for behavior on my part that is misleading unto others.   I am confident that the ethics of bribery in business rest in the appropriate or inappropriate use of the Ethical Egoism Theory.   The CEO of Enron, and many other corrupt businessmen in modern times, have equally shown extreme self-interest in their  business situations.   In my case, such extreme use of the Ethical Egoism Theory would never occur because I rest my principles on divine commands.   Honesty, in my case, is a virtue of necessity.Thus, I would only apply the Ethical Egoism Theory within the framework of the Divine Command Theory when the situation calls for nothing else except self-interest as a driving force for ethical behavior.    Also, in my case, self-interest would also translate into the good pleasure of God; the long term interests of society (as in the Utilitarian Theory); Kant’s Categorical Imperative or ‘doing unto others as I want others do unto me;’ obedience to the government in return for which I receive protection of my rights, as in the Rights Theory; and honesty, justice, etc., in light of the theory of Virtue.In the ‘Kingdom of God’ – or the businessman who applies the Divine Command Theory to rule his ethical behavior – the Rights Theory occupies a very interesting place, indeed.   The Rights Theory asks for the government to protect my rights.   In return for this favor, I show obedience to the government by following the laws in general.   The businessperson who follows the same laws of the government would not cheat the government as did the Enron CEO.   Neither would such a businessperson return the favor of the government by che ating the investors of his or her company.If a former U.S. Senator were to accept a Rolex from a constituent, the Divine Command Theory would not call this behavior unethical if the Rolex were a gift.   If the former CEO of Tyco were to use company bonuses to host a lavish party for his wife, I would consider it unethical under the Divine Command Theory, seeing that God never asked us to usurp the rights of many people in favor of a few.   Lifting verbatim a news report and presenting it as one’s own is similarly unethical.   Being messaged the answers to exam questions during an examination is  unethical to boot.As far as downloading music without paying a fee is concerned, I would not consider it unethical so long as it serves the interests of society in the long run.   I do not believe that downloading free music off the Internet serves to put the music industry down.   There are countless people around the world who still do download free music off the Interne t, because they do not enjoy the quality of that music as compared to hardy CD’s that music shops would like to sell.   Besides, they do not appreciate yet the technology behind free music and the IPod.   So, even though this ethical issue appears complicated to a huge number of people, I believe that it is simple to understand in the light of Divine Command Theory.I do not think that God would like students to suffer financial hardships because of their love of music.   Hence, it is perfectly ethical, in my opinion, to enjoy free music off the Internet on IPod’s – for those who would like to miss out on the quality of CD’s from BMG, Sony, etc.   Likewise, choosing between ethical theories is always a sacrifice.   Hence, I apply reason to believe that the Divine Command Theory must incorporate all necessary ethical theories for me to conduct myself as a good human being, businessperson, and citizen of my nation.   This theory does not confuse me at times that call for my ethical ‘instincts’ to show up.   I believe in God, and in service to humanity.Additionally, I do not discriminate between black or white, Chinese or Hindu.   At times when people are engaging in what I believe to be incorrect behaviors, I do not intervene unless my self-interests as well as the pleasure of God are at sacrifice.   At all times, however, I have kept to ‘reason’ as the force that leads me to apply the Divine Command Theory, which I believe to be most trustworthy.

Disadvantages Of Artificial Intelligence - 964 Words

Artificial Intelligence is a tool that must be properly utilized and regulated in order to avoid dangers and fully utilize it for global benefit. Artificial intelligence is the future. This is a fact. Since 2015, with the invention of deep learning methods, we, as a civilization are moving towards true AI. Artificial intelligence, depending on how its harnessed, could be a blessing, a curse, or both. On the upside, Artificial intelligence would allow us to achieve more than ever before. On the downside, however, Artificial intelligence could take away millions of jobs and possibly even develop its own set of goals. Some of these downsides can be solved through regulation and development, while other downsides are unavoidable, and inherent†¦show more content†¦Also, the test does not provide a scale for rating the intelligence, it is rather just a pass or fail. The Turing test is still extremely important, and Alan Turing is credited with being one of the pioneers who led hum anity into the current computer age. The term â€Å"Artificial Intelligence† was first used in 1956 by John McCarthy, who created the Lisp computer language, which has been used as the standard for AI programming even today. McCarthy defined AI as the science and engineering of making intelligent machines. McCarthy hosted a conference at Dartmouth College in 1955, where he invited many other computer scientists to assist him in his attempt to create a machine that can think like a human mind. McCarthy did not succeed in his attempt, but he paved the way for a race to create a digital mind. 61 years after the Dartmouth conference, and true artificial intelligence that thinks for itself does not exist yet. Nonetheless, many advances in the field have been made, with focus on Machine Learning, Neural Networks, Expert Systems, and Fuzzy Logic. These are all methods that comprise an AI system, and separately, are used in specific applications. Machine learning is a component of AI, and is currently being used in many different ways across the globe. Machine learning has four subdivisions, supervised, semisupervised, unsupervised, and reinforcement learning. Supervised machine learning requires labelled data sets that have setShow MoreRelatedDisadvantages Of Artificial Intelligence1587 Words   |  7 PagesIntroductions Artificial Intelligence is felt almost everywhere. It is influence basically alters people’s lives, by the technology based applications that is embedded in machines that enhances people’s day to day activity. It is seen and experienced in different institutions, be it public or private, small entity and global. AI, or artificial intelligence, is the automation of human processes by means of machine learning, often done by computer systems. These processes include the acquisition ofRead MoreDisadvantages Of Artificial Intelligence1603 Words   |  7 PagesArtificial Intelligence Introduction Artificial intelligence is the study and development of enabling computer and machine technology to learn, simulate intelligence, use logic, and perform tasks that are typically performed by humans. Artificial intelligence is an area of research that has been prone to controversy. Researchers are conflicted in regards to whether artificial intelligence is beneficial. Some believe that it will help solve many societal issues, others fear that it will cause furtherRead MoreDisadvantages Of Artificial Intelligence909 Words   |  4 Pagesconstantly changing lives easier. However, as we advance in society, controversies start up on the right and wrongs of how our mechanics or robots develop, specifically Artificial Intelligence robots. Artificial intelligence is the ability to understand how to control motion and responses based upon experience. Artificial intelligence in robots are based on human traits such as reasoning, knowledge, planning, learning, communication, perception, and movement and manipulation of objects.As of now, ourRead MoreThe Pros And Disadvantages Of Artificial Intelligence1423 Words   |  6 PagesArtificial intelligence can be defined as the ability of a co mputer performing activities normally considered to require human intelligence. According to Blay Whitby, â€Å"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the study of intelligent behavior (in humans, animals, and machines) and the attempt to find ways in which such behavior could be engineered in any type of artifact. It is one of the most difficult and arguably the most exciting enterprise ever undertaken by humanity† (1). Technology is moving at a fastRead MoreAdvantages And Disadvantages Of Artificial Intelligence1464 Words   |  6 PagesArtificial intelligence, also known as AI is known throughout as machines with intelligence. By common definition, any machine capable of perceiving its environment and reacting in a manner to achieve a certain goal is considered an AI. Artificial intelligence has been and still is place in bad light due to the probability of turning malignant or achieving goals in whatever means possible, even at the cost of human safety. Despite these consequenc es should AI turn hostile towards humans, the advantagesRead MoreEthical Issues with Artificial Intelligence1471 Words   |  6 PagesSome believe this is the case with artificial intelligence or AI, which is the theory or goal of a series of accomplishments that would allow a computer to house a sentient life form. The idea of AI has formally been around since around 1956. There has been very slow but steady progress towards a working AI. Most scientists believe that there will be AI within twenty to fifty years. Since this is a very controversial topic with its advantages and disadvantages lets analyze these and examine the ethicalRead MoreArtificial Intelligence1237 Words   |  5 PagesWhat is artificial intelligence? Should humanity be concerned? There are many interpretations of Artificial intelligence. Merriam Webster’s online dictionary defines artificial intelligence as â€Å"A branch of computer science, dealing with the simulation of intelligent behaviour, in computers or the capability of a machine, to imitate intelligent human behaviour† (Artificial Intelligence, 1828). With technology continually progressing and embedding itself into today’s population, from Siri on iPhoneRead MoreSocial and Ethical Impact of Artificial Intelligence Essay examples1503 Words   |  7 PagesContents Introduction III History III What is Artificial Intelligence? III Social and Ethical Issues Associated with Artificial Intelligence IV Part I Social Impact of Artificial Intelligence IV Part II Advantages IV Part III Disadvantages IV Ethical Impact of Artificial Intelligence V Conclusion VI Bibliography VII Introduction As our world expands through the growing abilities and applications of computersRead MoreArtificial Intelligence Impact864 Words   |  4 Pages Artificial Intelligence and Its Impact to The Modern World Artificial Intelligence is something that us humans have known about for many years now. It is something that has been brought up and popularized in movies and books, and is a subject matter that a lot of people enjoy reading up on. The benefits of artificially intelligences out weighs the risks, but it is something that should be treaded carefully. Based on movies and known theories artificially intelligence has the possibilityRead MoreAnalysis Of Alan Turing s Idea Of Can Computers Think?1664 Words   |  7 Pagescase for or against Artificial Intelligence from a logistical or ideological standpoint. Refer to the work of Alan Turing in your response. Alan Turing’s idea of ‘can computers think? Is challenged with how complex the human brain is and how computers only know what they are programmed with, even though ‘Deep Blue’(Deep Blue (Chess Computer)) Was able to beat chess champion Garry Kasparov in game one of a six-game match on the 10th of February 1996. Artificial Intelligence can not replicate a